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A field experiment was carried out during 2024-2025 at Sri Krishnadevaraya College of Horticultural Sciences, Ananthapuramu andhra Pradesh, India, to evaluate the influence of different mulching materials on growth, flowering, yield, quality, weed control, water use efficiency and economics of Crossandra infundibuliformis (L) Nees. The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Block Design (RBD) comprising seven treatments and four replications: control (no mulch), straw mulch (5 cm and 10 cm), compost mulch (5 cm and 10 cm), polyethene mulch and biodegradable mulch. Results indicated that mulching significantly enhanced all the growth and yield parameters compared to the control. Polyethene mulch (T₆) recorded the maximum plant height (40.50 cm), number of branches per plant (5.63), leaf area index (1.85), chlorophyll content (38.21 SPAD) and dry matter production (184.09 g plant -1 ). The same treatment also resulted in early flowering (45.02 days to first flowering), extended flowering duration (57.02 days) and the highest flower yield (5015.04 kg ha -1 ). Superior flower quality was observed under polyethene mulch with the greatest flower length (4.45 cm), diameter (4.45 cm), flower weight (32.87 g/100 flowers), vase life (12.40 days) and anthocyanin content (0.72 mg g -1 FW). Moreover, polyethene mulch effectively reduced weed density (30.01 no. m -2 ) and increased weed control efficiency (71.91%). It also conserved soil moisture (23.56%) and improved water use efficiency (20.06 kg ha -1 mm -1 ). The economic analysis revealed that polyethene mulch provided the highest net return (₹156,175 ha -1 ) and benefit-cost ratio (3.25), followed by straw and compost mulches, while the control recorded the lowest profitability. The findings suggest that polyethylene mulch is the most effective for enhancing growth, yield, flower quality and profitability of Crossandra infundibuliformis under semi-arid conditions, though biodegradable alternatives may be explored for sustainable production.
Keywords: Crossandra infundibuliformis; mulching; polyethylene; flower yield; anthocyanin; water use efficiency; economics; Crossandrainfundibuliformis; floweryield; wateruseeffi- ciency
ciency,economics westmonsoon.Themeanmaximumtemperaturedur- 1.Introduction ingtheexperimentalperiodrangedfrom30°Cto39°C, Crossandra infundibuliformis (L.) Nees, commonly whiletheminimumtemperaturevariedbetween18°C knownasFirecrackerflowerorKanakambaram,isa and25°C AICRP2023.Theexperimentalsoilwassandy popularornamentalandlooseflowercropcultivated loamintexture,slightlyalkalineinreaction(pH7.6), widelyacrosssouthernIndiaforgarlandmakingand withanelectricalconductivityof0.17dSm−1,lowin aesthetic decoration. It belongs to the family Acan- organiccarbon(0.33%)andmediuminavailableni- thaceaeandisvaluedforitsvibrantorangeflowers, trogen(283kgha−1),phosphorus(29.1kgha−1)and longbloomingperiodandabilitytothriveundertrop- potassium(297kgha−1), indicatingmoderatefertil- ical and semi-arid conditions. The crop has gained ityandnon-salineconditionssuitableforfloricultural significanteconomicimportanceinrecentyearsow- crops.
ingtoitsconsistentmarketdemandandsuitabilityfor year-roundcultivation[22].However,productivityand TheexperimentwaslaidoutinaRandomisedBlock flowerqualityof Crossandra areoftenlimitedbysoil Design(RBD)withseventreatmentsandfourreplica- moisturestress,nutrientdepletionandweedcompeti- tions. Eachplotmeasured5.0m 5.0m,withplant × tion,particularlyunderthedryclimaticconditionsof spacingmaintainedat45cm 30cm.Theseventreat- × southernAndhraPradesh.Efficientsoilmoistureand mentswere:T :Control(nomulch),T :Strawmulch(5 1 2 temperaturemanagementthereforebecomecritical cmthickness),T :Strawmulch(10cmthickness),T : 3 4 forenhancingthegrowth,yieldandprofitabilityofthis Compostmulch(5cmthickness),T :Compostmulch crop.
(10cmthickness),T :Polyethylenemulch(black,50 µthickness)andT :Biodegradablemulch(5cmthick- Mulchingisoneofthemosteffectiveagronomicprac- ness).Healthyanduniformsuckersof Crossandrain- ticesforimprovingsoilhydrothermalconditions,con- fundibuliformis cv.ArkaShreeyawereusedforplant- servingsoilmoisture,suppressingweedgrowth,en- ing. Inpolyethyleneandbiodegradablemulchtreat- hancingnutrientavailabilityandimprovingcropyield ments,sheetswerespreadoverthepreparedbedsbe- andquality.Mulchmaterials,whetherorganicorsyn- foretransplantingandholeswerepunchedatthedes- thetic,serveasaprotectivelayerthatminimisesevapo- ignatedspacingforplanting.
ration,moderatessoiltemperatureandreducesweed competition, thereby improving overall crop perfor- Uniform cultural and management practices were mance[7].Amongvariousmulchtypes,polyethylene adoptedacrossalltreatments.Abasalfertiliserdose mulchhasbeenextensivelyreportedtoimprovemi- of75:50:50kgN:P O :K Oha−1 wasapplied,withni- 2 5 2 croclimaticconditionsaroundtherootzone,leading trogenappliedintwoequalsplitsat30and60days tobettervegetativegrowth,floweryieldandqualityin afterplanting.Irrigationwasscheduledbasedonsoil severalornamentalcropssuchasmarigold,chrysan- moisture status using the surface irrigation method themumandgerbera[11,20]. Organicmulchessuch andinterculturaloperationswerecarriedoutmanually asstrawandcompost,ontheotherhand,improvesoil asneeded. Standardpestanddiseasemanagement fertility,microbialactivityandlong-termsoilhealth, practicesrecommendedforCrossandrawerefollowed thoughtheireffectsonfloweryieldandwateruseeffi- tomaintainahealthycrop[6].
ciencymayvarydependingonthicknessanddecom- Observations were recorded from five randomly se- positionrate[2,4].
lectedplantspertreatmentonvariousgrowth,flow- In Crossandra, information on the comparative effi- ering,yield,quality,weedandwater-useparameters. ciencyofdifferentmulchingmaterials,especiallyun- Growthparametersincludedplantheight(cm),num- dersemi-aridconditions, berofbranchesperplant,leafareaindex(LAI),chloro- phyll content (SPAD) and dry matter production (g plant−1). Flowering attributes such as days to first 2.MaterialsandMethods flowering,daystopeakflowering,floweringduration Thefieldexperimentwasconductedduring2024–2025 andnumberofpickingswererecorded.Yieldwasde- attheCollegeFarm,DepartmentofFloricultureand terminedbysummingthecumulativeflowerharvests LandscapeArchitecture,SriKrishnadevarayaCollege andexpressedinkilogramsperhectare. Qualitypa- of Horticultural Sciences, Ananthapuramu, Andhra rametersincludedflowerlength(cm),flowerdiameter Pradesh,India(14°41Nlatitude,77°36Elongitude,350 (cm),weightof100flowers(g),vaselife(days)andan- mabovemeansealevel).Theregionischaracterised thocyanincontent(mgg−1 FW),thelatterdetermined byasemi-aridtropicalclimatewithhot,drysummers usingthepHdifferentialmethod[5].
andmildwinters,receivinganaverageannualrainfall ofabout550–600mm,predominantlyfromthesouth- Weedobservationsincludedweeddensity(no.m−2), fresh and dry weight (g m ) and weed control effi- (5015.04 kg ha ), followed by straw mulch (10 cm) ciency(%),recordedat45and90daysafterplanting. (4349.34kgha−1)andcompostmulch(10cm)(4080.75 Soilmoisture(%)wasmeasuredgravimetricallyat0–15 kgha−1),whilethecontrolrecordedthelowestyield cmdepthatregularintervalstomonitormoisturereten- (3072.44kgha−1).Theincreaseinyieldundermulched tionunderdifferentmulches.Waterproductivityand conditionscouldbeattributedtoenhancedvegetative wateruseefficiency(WUE)werecalculatedastheratio growth,prolongedfloweringandefficientutilization offloweryieldtototalwaterapplied(kgha−1 mm−1). ofsoilmoistureandnutrients.
Economicevaluationofeachtreatmentwascarried Regardingflowerquality,polyethylenemulch(T )pro- outbasedontotalcostofcultivation, grossreturns, ducedflowersofsuperiorqualitywithmaximumflower netreturnsandbenefit–cost(B:C)ratiocomputedfrom length (4.45 cm), flower diameter (4.45 cm), flower theprevailinglocalmarketprices.
weight(32.87gper100flowers),vaselife(12.40days) Allrecordeddataweresubjectedtostatisticalanalysis andanthocyanincontent(0.72mgg−1 FW),followed usingtheAnalysisofVariance(ANOVA)method[19]. bystrawmulch(10cm)andcompostmulch(10cm). Significanceoftreatmenteffectswastestedata5% Theimprovementinqualityparametersmightbedue probabilitylevel(p ≤ 0.05)andmeancomparisons tothefavourablesoilenvironmentthatfacilitatedbet- weremadeusingtheLeastSignificantDifference(LSD) ternutrientuptakeandpigmentsynthesis. test.DataanalysiswasperformedusingOPSTATsoft- Mulchingalsohadasignificanteffectonweeddynam- ware[3].
ics. Thelowestweeddensity(30.01no.m−2), fresh weight(146.71gm−2)anddryweight(96.74gm−2) wererecordedunderpolyethylenemulch(T )(Table4), 3.RESULTS resultingina73.91%reductioninweeddensityand Significant variations were observed among the dif- 71.91%weedcontrolefficiencyoverthecontrol,fol- ferent mulching treatments with respect to growth, lowedbystrawmulch(10cm)andcompostmulch(10 flowering, yield, quality, weed management, water cm).Thecontrolplotexhibitedthehighestweedinfes- useefficiencyandeconomicsof Crossandrainfundibu- tation,indicatingtheeffectivenessofopaquemulching liformis. Among all the treatments, plants mulched materialsinsuppressingweedgrowth.
with polyethylene (T ) (Table 1) recorded the maxi- mum plant height (40.50 cm), number of branches Soil moisture content and irrigation efficiency were perplant(5.63),leafareaindex(1.85),chlorophyllcon- greatly improved by mulching. Polyethylene mulch tent(38.21SPAD)anddrymatterproduction(184.09 (T ) (Table 5) maintained the highest soil moisture gplant−1). Thiswasfollowedbycompostmulchat (23.56%),longestirrigationinterval(4.91days),least 10cmthickness(T )andstrawmulchat10cmthick- totalwaterapplied(250.40mm)andmaximumwater ness(T ),whilethecontrol(T )recordedthelowest productivityandwateruseefficiency(20.06kgha−1 3 1 growthvalues.Thesuperiorperformanceofpolyethy- mm−1).Thecontroltreatmentrecordedthelowestsoil lenemulchmaybeattributedtobettersoilmoisture moistureandefficiencyvalues.Theseresultsindicate conservationandfavourablemicroclimaticconditions thatmulchingminimisesevaporativelossesanden- thatenhancedphotosyntheticactivityandvegetative hanceswateruseefficiencybymaintainingfavourable growth.
Flowering parameters were also significantly influ- Economicanalysisrevealedthatpolyethylenemulch encedbydifferentmulches.Polyethylenemulch(T ) (T ) (Table 6) achieved the highest net returns 6 6 (Table2)resultedintheearliestflowering(45.02daysto ( 156,175ha−1)withabenefit–costratioof3.25,fol- | firstfloweringand62.42daystopeakflowering)along lowedbystrawmulch(10cm)( 138,705ha−1;B:Cratio | withthelongestfloweringduration(57.02days)and 3.43)andcompostmulch(10cm)( 122,600ha−1;B:C | highestnumberofpickings(25.91),whilethecontrol ratio3.01). Althoughthecostofpolyethylenemulch tookthelongesttimeforflowering(54.33daystofirst wasrelativelyhigher,thegreateryieldandqualitycom- flowering) and showed the shortest flowering dura- pensatedfortheincreasedexpenditure.Thelowestnet tion(42.55days).Theenhancementinfloweringunder returns( 88,240ha−1)andB:Cratio(2.76)wereob- | polyethylenemulchmightbeduetothefavourable servedinthecontrol.Ingeneral,polyethylenemulch soiltemperatureandmoistureconditions,whichac- (T )wasshowntobethemosteffectivetreatment,sig- celeratephysiologicalandbiochemicalprocessesre- nificantlyimprovinggrowth,flowering,yield,flower latedtoflowerinitiationanddevelopment.Asimilar quality,weedsuppression,waterconservationandeco- trendwasnoticedforfloweryield,wherepolyethylene nomicreturns,followedbystrawmulch(10cm)and mulch(T )(Table3)producedthehighestfloweryield compostmulch(10cm).Theunmulchedcontrolcon- sistentlyrecordedthelowestvaluesforallparameters. blyearlierdaystofirstflowerbudinitiation,firstflower opening and a notably extended total flowering du- ration,maybemechanisticallyattributedtothesta- 4.Discussions bleandoptimalsoilmoistureandtemperaturecon- Significant and consistent variations in morpho- ditionsthatcollectivelyfavourthecomplexcascade physiological and yield-related parameters were ofphysiologicalandbiochemicalprocessesgoverning observed across different mulching treatments in floralinductionandanthesisin Crossandra.Adequate Crossandrainfundibuliformis (L.)Nees,unequivocally soilmoistureavailabilityduringcriticaldevelopmental demonstrating that both the type and thickness of phasesensuresuninterruptedturgor-drivencellexpan- mulch material exert a profound and decisive influ- sionandsustainedphytohormonebiosynthesis,which enceonvegetativegrowthdynamics,phenologicalad- areprerequisitesfortimelyfloraltransition.Theseob- vancement,floralyieldandoverallagronomicperfor- servations are in close agreement with the findings manceofthecrop.Themarkedlysuperiorvegetative of [22], who unambiguously emphasised that envi- growthindicesencompassingplantheight, number ronmentallyoptimisedconditions,particularlymod- of branches per plant, leaf area index and total dry eratedsoiltemperatureandconsistentmoistureavail- matteraccumulationrecordedunderblackpolyethy- ability,significantlyacceleratethefloweringphenol- lenemulch(Fig.1)maybeascribedtoitsuniqueca- ogyin Crossandra. Thegenotypicsensitivityofflow- pacitytoconservesoilmoisturebysubstantiallycur- ering parameters to prevailing agro-environmental tailingevaporativelossesfromthesoilsurface,main- andedaphicconditionswasfurtherelucidatedby[15], tain near optimal rhizosphere temperature and en- whodocumentedsignificantvariabilityindaystoflow- hancerootzoneaeration,therebycollectivelycreating ering, floweringdurationandassociatedphenologi- athermodynamicallyandhydrologicallyfavourable caltraitsamongdiverse Crossandrainfundibuliformis micro-environmentthatisconducivetosustainedpho- genotypesunderKonkanagro-climaticconditions,un- tosyntheticactivityandacceleratedbiomassaccumu- derscoring the pivotal role of micro-environmental lation.Thephysiologicallyenrichedrootzoneenviron- modulationindeterminingfloweringoutcomes.Analo- mentunderpolyethylenemulchfacilitatesenhanced gousresponseshavebeensystematicallydocumented mineralnutrientsolubilisation,uptakeandtransloca- inotherornamentalspeciesby[11]and[17],where tion,ultimatelyaugmentingthemetabolicefficiencyof mulching treatments were shown to improve floral thecropcanopy.Comparablephysiologicalimprove- initiation, advance first bloom and meaningfully ex- mentsin Crossandra havebeensubstantiatedby[22], tendtheproductivebloomingperiod. Furthermore, whoconclusivelydemonstratedthatoptimisedmicro- [4]and[9]collectivelyreportedthatmulchedplotsex- environmentalconditions,particularlywithrespectto hibitedasignificantlyhighernumberofflowerpick- soilmoistureandtemperatureregimes,significantly ings per plant per season, which was attributed to enhancechlorophyllbiosynthesis,netassimilationrate enhancedefficiencyofnutrientandwaterutilisation andconsequentvegetativevigour.Inconsonancewith underfavourablesoilphysicalconditionscreatedby these findings, [7] reported that the judicious inte- mulching.
grationofnitrogenmanagementwithnano-ureaap- plicationssynergisticallyimprovedplantheight, lat- Therecordedsuperiorityinfloweryieldandthecon- eral branching intensity and leaf area development comitantenhancementofqualitativeattributesencom- in Crossandrainfundibuliformis cv.Lakshmi,while[6] passingspikelength,floretdiameter,individualflower furthercorroboratedthatimprovednutrientandirri- weight, post-harvest vase life and anthocyanin pig- gationmanagementdirectlytranslatesintomeasur- mentconcentration(Fig.2)underpolyethylenemulch ablegainsinvegetativeparametersofthisornamental maybemechanisticallyexplainedbythemaintenance species. Thesefindingsarefurthersubstantiatedby offavourablerhizospherephysicochemicalconditions investigationsinotherfloriculturalandhorticultural that optimise nutrient solubility and active absorp- crops,wherein[10]and[14]conclusivelyestablished tion by root systems, thereby ensuring an uninter- thatpolyethylenemulchsignificantlypromotesphoto- ruptedsupplyofassimilatesandstructuralprecursors syntheticefficiency,carbonassimilationanddrymat- requiredforfloraldevelopmentandpigmentbiosyn- terpartitioningcomparedtounmulchedororganically thesis. Thebiosynthesisofanthocyanins,whichare mulched controls, primarily through its superior re- flavonoid-classsecondarymetabolitesandmajorde- flectancecharacteristicsandimpermeabilitytowater terminantsofflowercolourintensityandpost-harvest vapour.
ornamentalvalue,isparticularlysensitivetofluctua- Thesignificantadvancementinfloweringphenology tionsintemperatureandoxidativestress,bothofwhich underpolyethylenemulch,asevidencedbyapprecia- areeffectivelymoderatedbypolyethylenemulching. Treatments Plantheight Branches LAI Chlorophyll DMP −1 −1 (cm) plant (SPAD) (gplant ) T :Control 28.54 3.25 1.05 32.04 109.84 T :Strawmulch(5cm) 31.03 3.83 1.20 33.53 124.97 T :Strawmulch(10cm) 35.52 4.69 1.45 35.89 159.13 T :Compostmulch(5cm) 33.07 4.27 1.30 34.56 139.52 T :Compostmulch(10cm) 36.25 4.85 1.50 36.03 152.87 T :Polyethylenemulch 40.50 5.63 1.85 38.21 184.09 T :Biodegradablemulch 34.04 4.41 1.35 35.01 149.24 CD(P=0.05) 4.45 1.07 3.56 5.34 3.79 SEd 2.04 0.49 1.63 2.45 1.74
Daystofirst Daystopeak Flowering Floweryield No.of −1 Treatments flowering flowering duration(days) pickings (kgha ) T :Control 54.33 71.06 42.55 18.87 3072.44 T :Strawmulch(5cm) 51.05 68.25 47.78 20.63 3631.56 T :Strawmulch(10cm) 48.42 65.58 52.42 23.54 4349.34 T :Compostmulch(5cm) 50.17 67.33 48.65 21.87 3930.64 T :Compostmulch(10cm) 47.98 64.90 53.00 22.08 4080.75 T :Polyethylenemulch 45.02 62.42 57.02 25.91 5015.04 T :Biodegradablemulch 49.25 66.16 50.93 21.27 3886.72 CD(P=0.05) 4.45 1.07 3.56 1.42 522.06 SEd 2.04 0.49 1.63 0.66 251.38 Analogousenhancementinfloweryieldandqualitative earlyseedlingestablishment,therebydisruptingthe traitsof Crossandra wassystematicallydocumented weedlifecycleatitsmostvulnerablestage.Thephysi- by[22]and[6],whoestablishedthatimprovedphysio- calbarriercreatedbythemulchfilmalsopreventsthe logicalefficiency,particularlyintermsofsource–sink mechanicalemergenceofgerminatedweedseedlings dynamicsandnutrientuseefficiency,constitutesthe fromthesoilsurface,furtherreinforcingtheherbicidal primary driver of superior floral attributes and mar- effectwithoutchemicalinputs.Comparableandwell- ketable yield. Parallel findings in other ornamental documentedweed-suppressiveeffectsofpolyethylene cropswerepresentedby[2],[20]and[21],allofwhom mulchhavebeenreportedinotherhorticulturalpro- attributedsignificantlyenhancedflowerpigmentation ductionsystemsby[14]and[8],whoprovidedquanti- intensity, improvedvaselifeandsuperiorstructural tativedataconfirmingsignificantreductionsinweed floraltraitstothethermallyandhydrologicallystable density,weedbiomassandweedspeciesdiversityun- rootzonemicroclimatesustainedbyeffectivemulching derplasticmulchedplots. Meanwhile,[4]and[2]re- practices.
portedthatorganicmulchingmaterialssuchaspaddy strawandcompost,whilstofferingmoderatelyeffec- Weed suppression efficiency was most pronounced tiveweedsuppressionthroughphysicalexclusionof andstatisticallysignificantunderpolyethylenemulch, light,simultaneouslyconfertheaddedagronomicad- aphenomenonprimarilyattributabletoitsphysical vantageofprogressivelyenrichingsoilorganicmatter opacity and light-impermeable nature, which effec- content,stimulatingbeneficialmicrobialcommunities tivelyeliminatesthephotosyntheticallyactiveradia- andimprovingsoilbiologicalactivityoversuccessive tion(PAR)prerequisiteforweedseedgerminationand cropseasons.Thesecomplementarymechanismsof Anthocyanin Flower Flower Weightof100 Vaselife content −1 Treatments length(cm) diameter(cm) flowers(g) (days) (mgg FW) T :Control 3.82 3.82 28.42 7.17 0.48 T :Strawmulch(5cm) 4.01 4.01 29.73 8.27 0.54 T :Strawmulch(10cm) 4.30 4.30 31.25 10.10 0.62 T :Compostmulch(5cm) 4.08 4.08 30.16 9.10 0.57 T :Compostmulch(10cm) 4.22 4.22 31.04 10.50 0.62 T :Polyethylenemulch 4.45 4.45 32.87 12.40 0.72 T :Biodegradablemulch 4.15 4.15 30.42 9.23 0.60 CD(P=0.05) 0.53 0.58 2.14 3.56 0.36 SEd 0.24 0.26 0.98 1.63 0.16
Weeddensity Freshweight Dryweight Weeddensity Weedcontrol −2 −2 −2 Treatments (no.m ) (gm ) (gm ) reduction(%) efficiency(%) T :Control 115.02 539.33 361.31 0.00 0.00 T :StrawMulch(5cm) 81.32 361.72 240.02 29.33 32.93 T :StrawMulch(10cm) 50.01 245.01 159.74 56.52 53.72 T :CompostMulch(5cm) 71.72 314.34 212.35 37.78 40.26 T :CompostMulch(10cm) 59.04 274.32 176.01 48.73 51.28 T :Polyethylenemulch 30.01 146.71 96.74 73.91 71.91 T :Biodegradablemulch 43.72 217.78 147.01 62.07 43.95 CD(P=0.05) 7.66 31.84 18.32 – 14.23 SEd 3.52 14.61 8.41 – 6.53 weed management under mulching, by eliminating limitedanderraticprecipitation.Similarly,[11]and[4] inter-specificcompetitionforlimitingresourcesinclud- demonstratedthatthethermalbufferingcapacityof ingmineralnutrients,soilmoistureandincidentsolar mulchmaterialsbymodulatingdiurnalandseasonal radiation,indirectlybutsubstantiallycontributetoim- soilsurfacetemperaturefluctuationssignificantlyim- provedcropgrowthandproductivity.
provesoverallwaterproductivityundersemi-aridagro- climaticconditionscharacterisedbyhighevapotran- Thesignificantlysuperiorsoilmoistureretentionca- spirationdemand.Thesefindingsarefurthercorrob- pacity,appreciablyextendedirrigationintervalsand oratedbytheinvestigationsof[6]in Crossandra,who markedlyelevatedwateruseefficiency(WUE)quan- convincinglydemonstratedthattheconjunctiveman- tifiedunderpolyethylenemulchprovidecompelling agementofsoilmoistureconservationandenhanced empiricalvalidationofthewell-establishedprinciple nutrient availability constitutes the primary mecha- thatimpermeablemulchfilmseffectivelyinterceptand nism through which mulching improves floral yield, arresttheupwardcapillaryfluxofsoilwatertowards qualityandoverallcropperformanceofthiscommer- theevaporativesurface,therebysubstantiallyreduc- ciallyimportantornamental.
ingnon-productiveevaporativelossesfromthesoil– plant–atmospherecontinuum.Theseobservationsare Theeconomicanalysisofmulchingtreatmentsunam- instrongconcordancewiththefindingsof[16],[14] biguouslyrevealedthatpolyethylenemulchachieved and[13],whoreportedacrossindependentexperimen- thehighestgrossreturns,netreturnsperunitareaand talsystemsthatmulchingpracticesminimiseevapo- benefit-costratio(BCR),primarilydrivenbyitscapac- rative water losses, maintain soil moisture at plant- itytodeliversignificantlyenhancedmarketableflower availablelevelsforextendedperiodsandconsequently yieldcoupledwithsuperiorqualitativeattributesthat optimisecropwaterproductivityunderconditionsof commandpremiummarketprices. Theseeconomic infundibuliformis Soilmoisture Irrigation Totalwater Water Wateruse (0–15cm) applied productivity efficiency interval −1 −1 −1 Treatments (%) (days) (mm) (kgmm ) (kgha mm ) T :Control 13.42 3.14 310.66 9.91 9.91 T :StrawMulch(5cm) 16.64 3.63 290.45 12.53 12.53 T :StrawMulch(10cm) 21.15 4.16 275.32 15.81 15.81 T :CompostMulch(5cm) 17.67 3.87 285.68 13.79 13.79 T :CompostMulch(10cm) 19.81 4.38 270.66 15.11 15.11 T :Polyethylenemulch 23.56 4.91 250.40 20.06 20.06 T :Biodegradablemulch 19.20 4.14 265.21 14.66 14.66 CD(P=0.05) 1.16 0.37 1.59 1.28 1.28 SEd 0.53 0.17 0.61 0.59 0.59
Totalcost Grossreturns Netreturns −1 −1 −1 Treatments (| ha ) (| ha ) (| ha ) B:CRatio T :Control 50,000.00 163,395.00 88,240.00 2.76 T :StrawMulch(5cm) 55,000.00 195,705.00 108,395.00 2.97 T :StrawMulch(10cm) 57,000.00 176,850.00 138,705.00 3.43 T :CompostMulch(5cm) 57,500.00 183,600.00 119,350.00 3.08 T :CompostMulch(10cm) 61,000.00 225,675.00 122,600.00 3.01 T :Polyethylenemulch 69,500.00 174,870.00 156,175.00 3.25 T :Biodegradablemulch 85,000.00 138,240.00 89,870.00 2.06 outcomes are entirely consistent with the yield and natives,demonstratingcomparableefficacyinterms economic variability data reported by [15] among of soil moisture conservation, crop yield enhance- diverse Crossandrainfundibuliformis genotypeseval- mentandwateruseefficiencywhilstsimultaneously uated under varying agro-climatic conditions and eliminatingtheenvironmentalburdenassociatedwith arefurtherreinforcedbycomparableeconomicben- residuemanagement.Collectivelyandinthebroader efit assessments of mulching documented by [20] globalcontext,thepresentfindingsareinstrongagree- and[17]acrossmultipleornamentalandflowercrop mentwiththoseof[22], [6]and[15], collectivelyaf- species. It is, however, imperative to contextualise firming that the growth, flowering phenology, yield theseeconomicadvantageswithinthebroaderframe- and qualitative attributes of Crossandra infundibuli- workofenvironmentalsustainability,giventhewell- formis respondsignificantlyandfavourablytotheim- documentedecologicalconcernsassociatedwiththe provedsoilmoistureconservationandenhancednutri- persistenceandaccumulativesoilcontaminationpo- entmanagementregimesachievedthroughsystematic tentialofpolyethylenemulchresidues,ashighlighted mulchinginterventions.Polyethylenemulchemerged by[25]and[10].Polyethylenefilms,beingrecalcitrant asthemostagronomicallyandeconomicallyeffective tobiologicaldegradation,progressivelyfragmentinto mulchingmaterialundertheprevailingsemi-aridagro- microplastic particles that persist in the soil matrix climaticconditionsofAnanthapuramu,followedinper- forextendedperiods,potentiallydisruptingsoilstruc- formancebypaddystrawandcompostmulches.Never- ture, microbial ecology and long-term land produc- theless,fromtheperspectiveoflong-termagricultural tivity. In direct response to these sustainability im- sustainabilityandenvironmentalstewardship,future peratives, [13] and [21] have recently advocated for researchendeavoursshouldprioritisethesystematic biodegradablemulchingmaterialsincludingpolylactic investigationandfield-levelvalidationofbiodegrad- acid(PLA)filmsandstarch-basedcompositesaseco- ableandeco-friendlymulchingmaterialsin Crossandra logicallyresponsibleandagronomicallyviablealter- infundibuliformis production systems, with the dual objectiveofensuringecologicalsafetyandsustaining lenemulchcanberecommendedformaximisingpro- highlevelsofcropproductivityacrossagro-climatic ductivity and profitability in Crossandra cultivation. regions.
However,forlong-termsustainabilityandenvironmen- talsafety,theuseofbiodegradableororganicmulching materialsshouldbeexploredasviablealternativesto plasticmulch.