Professor and Head, Department of Textile and Apparel Designing, College of Community Science, Central
Young Professional II, AICRP-WIA, College of Community Science, Central Agricultural University (Imphal), Sangsangre, Tura, Meghalaya – 794005, IndiaIndia
Also available as PDF (figures and tables appear in the PDF).
Meghalaya, a resource-rich yet economically challenged state in Northeast India, presents a compelling case for inclusive and sustainable agricultural innovation through mushroom cultivation particularly oyster mushrooms. This paper explores the socio-economic potential of mushroom farming in enhancing rural livelihoods, especially for women, by analyzing studies, case reports, training programs, and government interventions. With low land requirements, high returns, and nutritional benefits, mushroom cultivation emerges as a gender-sensitive, climate-resilient agri-enterprise ideal for smallholders. Case studies from West Garo Hills and Ri Bhoi highlight how women farmers benefit from targeted training, digital tools, and support infrastructure. The study also identifies challenges such as post-harvest perishability, limited access to credit and digital platforms, and gender-based resource disparities. It recommends a multi-pronged approach scaling up nanotechnology and cold storage innovations, fostering women-led cooperatives, and integrating ICT tools for training and market linkage. The research underscores the importance of embedding gender equity into policy and technology frameworks to transform mushroom farming into a vehicle for rural transformation and women’s empowerment in Meghalaya
Keywords: Oyester mushroom; Mushroom cultivation; Sustainable Agriculture; Women’s empowerment; Rural livelihoods; Mushroomcultivation; Oyestermushroom; SustainableAgriculture; Women’sempowerment; Rurallivelihoods 1.Introduction 2.ReviewofLiterature Meghalaya; oneoftheStateinIndia; facesnumerous
Rurallivelihoods 1.Introduction 2.ReviewofLiterature Meghalaya,oneoftheStateinIndia,facesnumerous Mushroomsareanutritiousfood,richinprotein,fiber, challenges, including a low per capita GSDP, inade- vitamins,andminerals,whilebeinglowinfatandcalo- quate infrastructure, and limited access to markets. ries,makingthemidealforthosewithdiabetesand Despite these obstacles, the state has significant hypertension.Theirhistoricaluseasbothamedicinal strengths, such as its salubrious climate, abundant andculinaryitemhasearnedthemthetitle“Elixirof natural resources, and high literacy rates, which Life.” Successfulmushroomfarmingrequiresfactors canbeleveragedforsustainabledevelopment. The likeproximitytowater,affordablelabor,accesstoraw stategovernmentaimstofosterhumandevelopment materials,andgoodsewagemanagement(Chaudary by focusing on education, healthcare, and rural andMishra,2021).
livelihoodsinsectorslikeagriculture,foodprocessing, Oystermushrooms(Pleurotus spp.),commonlyknown and eco-tourism. Key strategies include improving as “Dhingri” in India, are grown across the country, secondaryeducation,expandinghealthcarecoverage, especiallyinstateslikeOrissa,Maharashtra,andAssam. andaddressinginfrastructuregapstopropelMegha- Theyprovideacost-effective,protein-richlivelihood layatowardsbecomingamiddle-incomestateinthe optionforfarmers,includinglandlessones,andcan nextdecade(MeghalayaVisionDocument,2020-21to significantlyincreaseincomethroughmodernfarming 2024-25).
techniques,valueaddition,andsustainablepractices. TheinterventionoforganizationslikeKVKhashelped Oystermushroomfarmingisaprofitableagri-business farmerslikeMr.Luingaingamexpandtheirproduction, thatcanenhancefarmincome, createemployment, leadingtosubstantialincomegrowthfrombothfresh andimprovenutritionalsecurity. Astudyconducted mushroomsandspawnsales(Jyotsna etal.,2024). inRongramblock,WestGaroHills,Meghalaya,on60 Women’sempowermentandgenderequalityarecru- oystermushroomgrowersrevealedthatlargerfarm cialforglobalprogress,withentrepreneurshipoffer- sizes benefited from economies of scale, with costs ingakeysolution.Mushroomfarming,asaprofitable per5polybagunitsdecreasingasfarmsizeincreased. andsustainableventure,providesruralwomenwith Thereturnsfrommushroomcultivationwerepositively opportunitiesforeconomicindependencewhilead- correlated with farm size, with small farms earning dressingissueslikemalnutrition. Organizationslike 58/kg,mediumfarms76/kg,andlargefarms120/kg. KrishiVigyanKendrasupportthisgrowthbyoffering Onaverage,everyrupeeinvestedinmushroomfarm- trainingandresources,thoughchallengessuchaslim- ingyielded1.55,withthehighestinput-outputratio itedknowledgeandmarketfluctuationsremain(Aditya observedinlargefarms(1.82).Tofurtherimprovepro- andBhatia,2020).
ductivityandprofitability,thestudysuggestsfostering The study found that training, demonstrations, and collaborationbetweenthestategovernment,financial extension materials significantly enhanced rural institutions,researchers,andmushroomgrowersto farmwomen’s knowledge of mushroom produc- facilitateadvancedtechnologiesandbettermarketac- tion, fostering economic empowerment through cess(Hatai,2021).
entrepreneurship. Mushroom farming proved eco- nomically viable, with yields generating a net profit Mushroom cultivation offers an ideal agricultural of Rs. 4,650 to Rs. 12,000 in six months. Over 60% innovation for women in Meghalaya requiring ofparticipantsacceptedmushroomproductionasa minimal land, flexible timing, and yielding high sustainableincome-generatingactivity,highlighting returns.Meghalaya’sagriculturalsectorisdominated itspotentialforruralwomen’sempowerment(Singh by women, mushroom cultivation emerges as a etal.,2018).
viable, low-cost, high-margin option. Farm women Mushroomsoffersustainablesolutionstoglobalchal- often bear the brunt of agricultural labour but face lengeslikefoodscarcity,healthissues,andenviron- limited access to resources, training, or markets. mentaldegradation.Theyprovidehigh-qualityprotein, Gender-friendlytechnologiesinthisagro-sectorcan essentialnutrients,andmedicinalbenefitswhilesup- fosterempowermentandsocio-economicupliftment. portingbioremediationbybreakingdownagricultural Technologiesbothtraditional(straw-basedmethods) waste. Their cultivation is environmentally friendly, andinnovative(nanotechnology,digitaltools)playa andtheby-productscanbeusedforanimalfeedand keyroleinempoweringwomenfarmersandenhancing soilenrichment.Keyvarietiessuchasbutton,shiitake, livelihoods.
andoystermushroomsmakeupmostofglobalproduc- tion(KumariandBaskaran,2015).
Thisstudyaimedtoexaminetheparticipationofmale offersaviablesolutionduetoitslowinputcostand andfemalefarmersintheIntegratedFarmingSystem high returns. Using agricultural by-products and (IFS)inMeghalaya’sNorth-Eastregion. IFSisaholis- requiring minimal land, mushroom cultivation not ticfarmingapproachthatintegratesvariousagricul- onlysupportsrurallivelihoodsbutalsomeetsgrowing turalpracticestoimproveincomeandemployment urban demand due to its nutritional value. This opportunitiesforsmallholders,whilepromotingsus- approachservesasasustainable,income-generating tainabilitythroughrecyclingcropresidues.Thestudy activitythatempowersruralwomen,enhancesfood focusedontheWestGaroHillsandSouthGaroHills security,andcontributestooverallruraldevelopment districts,surveying20respondents.Findingsshowed (Dey etal.,2020).
thatmostrespondents(40%)wereaged30–40years, The paper reviews 26 studies (1970–2022) on mush- with80%beingfemaleand20%male.Thefarmerstyp- roomcultivation,highlightingfivekeybenefits,nine icallyintegratedatleastthreecomponents,including therapeuticproperties,andmedicinaluseswithbioac- fishfarming,agriculturalcrops,andpoultry(Bliss et tivecompounds.Italsocoversnutritionalvalue,culti- al.,2022).
vationmethods,andchallenges.Whileglobalresearch Mushroom cultivation is generally classified into isextensive,thepapercallsformorestudiesinneotrop- two main methods, wood-log and non-wood-log icalregionslikeGuyana,wheredataisscarcedespite cultivation. Non-wood-logcultivationcanbefurther richbiodiversity(Bhagarathi etal.,2023). divided into non-aseptic methods, like composting Thepaddy-strawbagmethodiswidespreadduetoits with or without casing, used for species such as simplicityandaffordability.Inacasestudy,JacintaLyn- Agaricusbisporus and Volvariellavolvacea,andaseptic gdohfromRiBhoistartedmushroomfarmingin2015 methods that require sterilized media and precise usingjustfourspawnpacketsonpaddystraw;within controlofenvironmentalfactors,suitableforfungilike 25–30days,shesawaprofitableharvest,attributing Flammulinavelutipes and Grifolafrondosa.Advanced successtocleanmediumandproperventilation(The- techniques, including casing, scratching, flooding, betterindia.com,2024). Thismodelusesagricultural and the use of either solid or liquid spawn, have residue, fitsinhouseholdsettings, andisreplicable beendevelopedtoenhancefruitingandsynchronize acrossregions.Thepaddy-strawbagmethodisasim- production.Modernindoorcultivationsystemsoften ple,low-techsetupusingplasticbagsandstraw,ideal rely on automation and are increasingly using LED for women with limited land and resources; it uses lighting during fruiting stages to improve energy leftover straw as substrate (eco-friendly) and forms efficiency(ThuyandSuzuki,2019).
compactunitssuitableforhomesteadsorbackyards, AstudyconductedinDemandoandBaliapadavillages withclear,replicableprotocols(e.g.,JacintaLyngdoh ofOdisha’sCuttackdistrictexaminedgenderrolesin startedwithfourspawnpacketsandwithin25–30days mushroomfarming,focusingonawareness,roleper- realized returns) (Zizira.com, 2024). A case study in formance,skillgaps,andtrainingneeds.Itfoundthat West Bengal showed an 88% rise in production and allwomenparticipatedincoreactivitieslikecompost 89%productivityincreaseaftertraining(Biswas,2024). preparation, production, watering, and harvesting, Capacity-buildingandtraininginitiativesinSangsan- whileamajorityofwomen(66.5%)managedincome gre village in December 2024 comprised a five-day andmenhandledmarketing. Althoughwomenhad program that trained 15 women in paddy straw access to resources like irrigation and spawn, their methods,residueuse,value-addition,andnutrition controlovertheseandfinancialresourceslikebank (Syllad.com, 2024). AtResubelpara(February2024), creditwaslimited.Thestudyhighlightedkeytraining 49participants(including20women)receivedhands- needsinpost-harvestmanagement,marketing,and on training under ICAR-NIBSM scientists, learning spawnproduction, leadingtothedevelopmentofa substrate preparation, disease control, and yield gender-sensitive entrepreneurship model aimed at methods,resultinginonebagyieldingapproximately empoweringwomenfarmersandboostingtheirskills 3 kg and Rs. 40–50k income per cycle (Highland andincome(Das etal.,2020).
Post, 2025). InFebruary2024, aone-daytrainingof India,beinganagriculture-centricnation,reliesheav- 20 women SC participants in North Garo Hills was ilyonthissectorforbothemploymentandeconomic led by CCS scientists, with emphasis on spawn use, stability,especiallyinruralareaswheremostfarmers pest/disease management, and yield enhancement aremarginalorlandless.Toboostincomeandimprove (HighlandPost,2025).ANEHU-ledTSPworkshopinRi the socio-economic status of these communities, Bhoi(February2021)coveredspeciesdifferentiation, especially women, small-scale mushroom farming spawn use, and preparation of approximately 25 oystermushroombedsperfarmer(NEHU.ac.in,2025). leadership,andrespectinhouseholdsandcommuni- Assam’s Aaranyak workshop emphasized hands-on ties,mirroringBinaDevi’simpactinBihar.Increased preparationofcultivationbags,substratemixing,and decision-makingcontrolcorrelateswithincomeand speciesidentification(Nenews.in,2024).Chhattisgarh gender-sensitive interventions (Ojs.pphouse.org, women’sSHGworkshopscoveredtechnicalrequire- 2024). Mushroom initiatives across India, with ments (temperature/humidity/disinfection), yield exampleslikeBinaDevi’s“MushroomMahila”move- optimization,andfinancialliteracy(Ojs.pphouse.org, ment and Meghalaya’s Jacinta Lyngdoh, showcase 2024).
how women adopt these ventures to gain income, autonomy, andrespect(Dmwsc.in, 2024). However, Nanotechnology interventions were also demon- farmwomen’sparticipationremainsconstrained:they strated:anNEHUprogramon19March2025showed engage heavily in subsistence agriculture but lack how nanotechnology boosts shelf life, safety, and accesstocapital,markets,andtraining. productivity,directlyengaginglocalgrowerstoexplore practicalbenefits(NEHU.ac.in,2025).WhileMeghalaya lacks direct digital literacy studies, national models 3.Challenges (e.g., Bihar’s “Mushroom Mahila” Bina Devi training Technical knowledge related to proper substrate over 700 women in phone usage) underscore the sterilization and disease control remains a weak impact of combining tech training with cultivation linkage,withdiseaseandspoilagearisingfrompoor (Syllad.com, 2024). The Han Agrocare model trains hygiene and a need for clean, lab-grade substrates. womenfirstindigitalbasics,includingMSOfficeand Post-harvest longevity is another challenge, since smartphoneapps,toengagewithe-learning,market mushrooms perish quickly and there is a need for networks, and coordination (Han Agrocare, 2024). accessible cold-storage and drying solutions to Digital tools reduce mobility constraints, enabling addresstheirshortshelflife.Digitalequityisafurther womentoaccesstrainingfromhome.
concern,astoolsandplatformsremainunderutilized TheMeghaFoodCooperativeSociety(MFCS)operates andpolicymustbridgedigitaldividestoensurefair acohesivecluster-basedmodelacrossNorthGaroHills, access to subsidies, markets, and digital platforms. backedbyMoMSMEandtheGovernmentofMeghalaya. Finally, access barriers persist, as gender norms Itincludesspawnlabs,dehydrationunits,trainingcen- maylimitwomen’saccesstosubsidies, capital, and ters,andvalue-addfacilitiesfocusedontribalwomen’s markets.
economicparticipation(Meghamushroom.com,2024). Meghalaya’sRegionalTrainingCentreinShillong,oper- 4.RecommendationsandFuturePathways atingsince1982,promotesspawnquality,training,and dehydration/marketingsupportforoysterandbutton Trainingprogramsshouldbescaledandtailored,in- mushrooms,yieldingapproximately5t/yearoffresh cludingdigital,financialliteracy,andagro-processing mushrooms(Thebetterindia.com,2024).Government modules,andhands-ontrainingshouldbeexpanded schemesprovideMeghalaya’s50%subsidyonspawn, withmodulesonnanotechnology,post-harvesttech- compost,andshedconstruction,alongwithfinancial nology,anddigitalliteracy.Technology-ledinnovation aidof22,000perunit,accessibletoresidentfarmers shouldbepromotedbyexpandingnanotechnologyso- withatleast0.2haofland(Govt.ofMeghalaya,2024). lutionsandsimpledrying/cold-chainmodels,andin- NECTAR(Shillong)supportsagri-techdissemination, frastructuresuchasMFCSclustercentersofferinglabs, includingmushroomspawnproductionandruraltrain- coldstorage,andvalue-addunitsshouldbescaledup. inginitiatives(En.wikipedia.org,2025). Supportsystemsshouldbestrengthenedbyenhanc- ingsubsidyawarenessandfacilitatingwomen’scoop- Income generation examples include farmers like erativestoaggregateharvests,fosteringwomen-led Rajdip Koch, who now produce approximately 300 cooperativesformarketaggregationandbargaining kg/cycle across 100 bags, selling at Rs. 160–200/kg power.ICTtoolsshouldbeintegratedforadvisoryser- forRs. 40–50kpercycle(HighlandPost,2025). More vices, peernetworking, andmarketlinkage, encour- broadly,Meghalayafarmerscanearnapproximately agingmobileappsande-advisoryplatformstailored 200/kg, or Rs. 40k–50k per cycle from 100 bags towomen’sneeds. Researchandmonitoringshould (Nenews.in, 2024). Mushrooms provide protein, establishimpactindicatorscoveringincome,health, vitamins,minerals,andantioxidants,addingdietary empowerment,andgendernorms,monitoringgender- diversity and potential health benefits to diets sensitiveoutcomesacrossincome,empowerment,and (Megagriculture.gov.in,2024).
foodsecuritymetrics.Finally,genderimpactshouldbe Intermsofempowerment,womengainself-reliance, mainstreamedbyembeddinggenderequityintechnol- ogyprojectstobalanceworkloadandnutritiongoals. improvement.JournalofMushroomResearch.Re- trievedfrom https://ojs.pphouse.org 5.Conclusion [4] Bliss, H., Das, P., &Mishra, B.K.(2022).Gender roles in integrated farming system – A study of Meghalaya’smushroomsectordemonstratesapromis- Meghalaya,India.
ingtemplateforintegratinggender-friendlytechnolo- gies,low-costtraditionalmethods,nanoparticleinter- [5] Chaudary,R.,&Mishra,A.(2021).MushroomPro- ventions,infrastructuralsupport,anddigitaltraining. ductionandProcessingTechnology. JustAgricul- Holisticscalingcannotonlyboostlivelihoodsbutalso tureMultidisciplinarye-Newsletter,1(9),1–4. advancegenderequityinruralcommunities. Mush- [6] Das, L., Lugun, N., Mahapatra, S., Srivastava, S. roomcultivationinMeghalayaoffersapromisingpath- K.,Mishra,S.K.,Hemrom,&Pattanaik,S.(2020). wayforfarmwomen’sempowermentthroughlow-tech Roleperformanceoffarmwomeninmushroom solutions,capacitybuilding,emergenttechnologies, farminganddevelopmentofagendersensitive andenablingpolicies.Scalingthismodelwithgender- entrepreneurshipmodelforenhancingincome. responsive design will amplify both livelihoods and 9(2),354–357.
[7] Dey, A., Patel, S., &Rashid, M.M.(2020).Small- MushroomcultivationinMeghalayaoffersareplicable scale mushroom production unit for the uplift- andscalablemodelforruraldevelopment,economic ment of rural economy and women empower- upliftment,andgenderempowerment.Byleveraging mentinIndia:AReview.39(2),38–46.
localresources,traditionalknowledge,andemerging technologies,thestatecantransformmushroomfarm- [8] Dmwsc.in. (2024). Training and workshops on ing into a robust livelihood option for farm women. mushroom cultivation in Meghalaya. Retrieved Theintegrationoftrainingprograms,digitalliteracy, from https://dmwsc.in value-additiontechnologies,andcooperativemodels [9] En.wikipedia.org.(2025). BinaDevi’sMushroom hasalreadydemonstratedtangiblebenefitsinincome, MahilaMovement.Wikipedia.Retrievedfrom ht autonomy,andcommunityleadership. However,to tps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bina_Devi fullyrealizethispotential,systemicchallengessuch [10] Govt.ofMeghalaya.(2024). Subsidyprogramfor aslimitedaccesstopost-harvestinfrastructure,gen- mushroomcultivationinMeghalaya.Government deredaccesstocapital,anddigitalinequitymustbe ofMeghalaya,MinistryofAgriculture.Retrieved addressed.
from https://egovtschemes.com Agender-responsiveapproach,rootedinsupportive [11] Han Agrocare. (2024). Digital training for farm policies,inclusivetraining,andscalableinnovations, women: E-learning tools and market networks. canensurethatmushroomfarmingnotonlyboosts AEsaNetwork.Retrievedfrom https://aesane income and nutrition but also redefines the socio- twork.org economiclandscapeforruralwomeninMeghalaya.As thestateadvancestowardbecomingamiddle-income [12] Hatai,L.D.(2021).Oystermushroomproduction region, empoweringitswomenthroughmushroom- inMeghalaya: Apotentialventure. EconomicAf- based agri-preneurship may prove to be one of its fairs,66(4),577–582.
[13] HighlandPost.(2025). Economicimpactofmush- roomfarminginMeghalaya.Retrievedfrom http