Therapeutic Relationship of Telepsychiatry and Telebehavioral Health: Ideas from Research on Telepresence, Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17140/PCSOJ-5-145Keywords:
Communication, Engagement, Health, Reality, Relationship, Telebehavioral, Telepsychiatry, Telepresence, Therapeutic, VirtualAbstract
Objective: This paper explores the therapeutic relationship, engagement and communication for participants using telepsychiatry
(i.e., video; TP), telebehavioral health (TBH) and other technologies.
Methods: The goal of this concept paper is to help clinicians, teachers and researchers consider the intersection of the following
three topics: 1) the therapeutic relationship in psychiatric and behavioral health care; 2) how TBH affects the therapeutic relationship,
engagement, communication, and boundaries; and 3) research findings on telepresence (TPr), virtual reality (VR) and augmented
reality (AR) applied to clinical care. A keyword search focused on concept areas: 1) therapeutic relationship, engagement,
communication, boundaries, clinical; 2) telepsychiatry, telemental or telebehavioral health, telepsychology); 3) psychotherapy via
technology; 4) computer/technology-mediated communication; and 5) telepresence related to technologies (virtual, augmented,
reality, environment).
Results: From a total of 4,712 potential references, 453 were eligible for full text review and 77 papers directly related to the concepts.
From papers’ references and a review of books and popular literature, 12 other sources of information (i.e., papers, books,
other) about TPr and VR were found. Though few studies literally discuss the therapeutic relationship, the impact of technology
on clinical engagement and communication is growing, from clinical (e.g., psychotherapy) and non-clinical (e.g., communication,
TPr) literature. The historical evolution of TPr and VR shows that definitions, foci of studies (e.g., social neuroscience to business)
and assessments vary widely. TP and TBH care can be improved by concepts of TPr, avoiding distractions, understanding
the technology-human interface, measures of TPR for clinical use and the use of simulation for training.
Conclusions: Additional evaluation/research is needed to ensure quality care, training, and evaluation of the therapeutic relationship
while preventing potential pitfalls.
References
Lombard M, Ditton T. At the heart of it all: The concept of presence. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. 1997; 3(2). doi: 10.1111/j.1083-6101.1997.tb00072.x
Hilty DM, Ferrer D, Callahan EJ, Johnston B, Callahan EJ, Yellowlees PM. The effectiveness of telemental health: A 2013 review. Telemed J E Health. 2013; 19(6): 444-454. doi: 10.1089/ tmj.2013.0075 Original Research | Volume 5 | Number 1 | Hilty DM, et al
Seligman MEP, Tierney J. We aren’t built to live in the moment. NY Times. 2017.
Ebook stats. Facebook Newsroom. Web site. https://news-room.fb.com/company-info. Accessed February 1, 2019.
Pew Research Center. Mobile Fact Sheet. Web site. http://www. pewinternet.org/fact-sheet/mobile/. Accessed February 1, 2019.
Hilty DM, Uno J, Chan S, Torous J, Boland RJ. Role of technol-ogy in professional development. Psychiatr Clin N Amer. In Press. 2019.
Liu LA, Chua CH, Stahl GK. Quality of communication expe-rience: Definition, measurement, and implications for intercultural negotiations. J Appl Psychol. 2010; 95(3): 469-487. doi: 10.1037/ a0019094
Hilty DM, Nesbitt TS, Marks SL, Callahan EJ. How telepsychi-atry affects the doctor-patient relationship: Communication, satis-faction, and additional clinically relevant issues. Primary Psychiatry. 2002; 9(9): 29-34.
Cukor P, Baer L, Willis BS, et al. Use of videophones and low-cost standard telephone lines to provide a social presence in telepsychi-atry. Telemed J. 1998; 4(4): 313-321. doi: 10.1089/tmj.1.1998.4.313
Hilty DM. Advancing science, clinical care and education: Shall we update engel’s biopsychosocial model to a bio-psy-cho-socio-cultural model? Psychol Cogn Sci Open J. 2016; 1(1). doi: 10.17140/PCSOJ-1-e001
National Alliance for the Mentally Ill. Engagement: A New Standard for Mental Health Care. Web site. https://www.nami. org/About-NAMI/Publications-Reports/Public-Policy-Reports/ Engagement-A-New-Standard-for-Mental-Health-Care/NAMI_ Engagement_Web.pdf. Accessed February 1, 2019.
Rizzo AS, Koenig ST. Is clinical virtual reality ready for primetime? Neuropsychology. 2017; 31(8): 877-899. doi: 10.1037/ neu0000405
Parsons TD, Gaggioli A, Riva G. Virtual reality for research in social neuroscience. Brain Sci. 2017; 7(4). pii: E42. doi: 10.3390/ brainsci7040042
Riva G. Virtual environments in neuroscience. IEEE Trans Inf Technol Biomed. 1998; 2(4): 275-281.
Witmer BG, Singer MJ. Measuring presence in virtual environ-ments: A presence questionnaire. Presence. 1998; 7(3): 225-240. doi: 10.1162/105474698565686
Torrejon A, Callaghan V, Hagr H. Improving communication and presence in online telepresence systems. Journal of Ambient Intel-ligence and Smart Environments. 2013; 17: 478-488. doi: 10.3233/978- 1-61499-286-8-478
Guttentag DA. Virtual reality: Applications and implications for tourism. Tourism Management. 31(5): 637-651. doi: 10.1016/j. tourman.2009.07.003
Mair GM. Transparent telepresence research. Industrial Robotics. 1999; 26(3): 209-215. doi: 10.1108/01439919910266875
Luxton DD. Artificial Intelligence in Behavioral and Mental Health Care. San Diego, CA, USA: Academic Press (Elsevier). 2016.
Lucas G, Rizzo A, Gratch J, et al. Reporting mental health symptoms: Breaking down barriers to care with virtual human in-terviewers. Frontal Robotics and Artificial Intelligence. 2017; 4(51); 1-9. doi: 10.3389/frobt.2017.00051
Maheu M, Drude K, Hertlein KM, Hilty DM. A framework for inter professional telebehavioral health competencies: Implemen-tation and challenges moving forward. Acad Psychiatry. 2018; 42(6): 825-833. doi: 10.1007/s40596-018-0988-1
Arskey H, O’Malley L. Scoping studies: Towards a methodo-logical framework. International Journal of Social Research Methodology. 2007; 8(1): 19-32. doi: 10.1080/1364557032000119616
Platt R, Spencer A, Burkey M, Polk S, Bettencourt A, Wissow L. What’s known about implementing co-located pediatric inte-grated care: A scoping review. International Review of Psychiatry. In Press. 2019.
Hilty DM, Srinivasan M, Xiong G, Ferranti J, Li ST. Lessons from psychiatry and psychiatric education for medical learn-ers and teachers. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2013; 25(3): 329-337. doi: 10.3109/09540261.2013
Perry S, Cooper AM, Michels R. The psychodynamic formula-tion: Its purpose, structure, and clinical application. Am J Psychiatry. 1987; 144(5): 543-550. doi: 10.1176/ajp.144.5.543
Engel GL. The clinical application of the biopsychoso-cial model. Am J Psychiatry. 1980; 137(5): 535-544. doi: 10.1176/ ajp.137.5.535
Greenberg M, Shergill S, Szmukler G, Tantum D. Narratives in Psychiatry. London, UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishing. 2002.
Atwood GE, Stolorow RD. Structures of Subjectivity: Explorations in Psychoanalytic Phenomenology. London, UK: Analytic Press. 1984.
Gillespie A, Cornish F. Intersubjectivity: Towards a dialogical analysis. Journal of the Theory of Social Behavior. 2010; 40: 19-46. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-5914.2009.00419.x 25 Hilty DM, et al
Hamann J, Leucht S, Kissling W. Shared decision making in psychiatry. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2003; 107(6): 403-409.
Maheu MM, Pulier ML, Wilhelm FH, McMenamin JP, Brown-Connolly NE. The Mental Health Professional and the New Technologies: A Handbook for Practice Today. Mahwah, NJ, USA: Erl-baum. 2004.
Maheu M, Drude K, Hertlein K, Hilty DM. An interdiscipli-nary framework for telebehavioral health competencies. Journal of Technology in Behavioral Science. 2017; 2: 190-210. doi: 10.1007/ s41347-017-0038-y
Hilty DM, Crawford A, Teshima J, et al. A framework for tele psychiatric training and e-health: Competency-based education, evaluation and implications. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2015; 27(6): 569-592. doi: 10.3109/09540261.2015.1091292
Hilty DM, Zalpuri I, Stubbe D, et al. Social media/networking and psychiatric education: Competencies, teaching methods, and implications. Journal of Technology in Behavioral Science. 2018; 1-26. doi: 10.1007/s41347-018-0061-7
Zalpuri I, Liu H, Stubbe D, Wrzosek M, Sadhu J, Hilty D. A competency-based framework for social media for trainees, facul-ty and others. Acad Psychiatry. 2018; 42(6): 808-817. doi: 10.1007/ s40596-018-0983-6
Hilty DM, Chan S, Torous J, Luo J, Boland RJ. A competen-cy-based framework for psych/behavioral health apps for train-ees, faculty, programs and health systems. Psychiatric Clinics of North America. In Press. 2018.
Hilty DM, Chan S, Torous J, Mahautmr J, Mucic D. New fron-tiers in healthcare and technology: Internet- and web-based men-tal options emerge to complement in-person and telepsychiatric care options. Journal of Health Medical Informatics. 6(4): 1-14. doi: 10.4172/2157-7420.1000200
Ghosh GJ, McLaren P, Watson JP. Evaluating the alliance in videolink teletherapy. J Telemed Telecare. 1997; 3(1): 33-35. doi: 10.1258/1357633971930283
Bouchard S, Robillard G, Marchand A, Renaud P, Riva G. Pres-ence and the bond between patients and their psychotherapists in the cognitive-behavior therapy of panic disorder with agoraphobia delivered in videoconference. Proceedings of the 10th Internation-al Workshop on Presence, Barcelona, Spain, October 25-27; 2007.
Greene CJ, Morland LA, Macdonald A, Frueh BC, Grubbs, KM, Rosen CS. How does tele-mental health affect group therapy process? Secondary analysis of a noninferiority trial. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2010; 78(5): 746-750. doi: 10.1037/a0020158
Jenkins-Guarnieri MA, Pruitt LD, Luxton DD, Johnson K. Pa-tient perceptions of telemental health: Systematic review of direct comparisons to in-person psychotherapeutic treatments.Telemed J E Health. 2015; 21(8): 652-660. doi: 10.1089/tmj.2014.0165
Horvath AO, del Re AC, Fluckiger C, Symonds D. Alliance in individual psychotherapy. Psychotherapy (Chic). 2011; 48(1): 9-16. doi: 10.1037/a0022186
Roesler C. Tele-analysis: the use of media technology in psy-chotherapy and its impact on the therapeutic relationship. J Anal Psychol. 2017; 62(3): 372-394. doi: 10.1111/1468-5922.12317
Tuerk PW, Yoder M, Ruggiero KJ, Gros DF, Acierno R. A pi-lot study of prolonged exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder delivered via telehealthtechnology. J Trauma Stress. 2010; 23(1): 116-123. doi: 10.1002/jts.20494
Tompkins P. Truth, trust, and telepresence. Journal of Mass Media Ethics.2003;18(3-4):194-212. doi:10.1080/08900523.2003.9679664
Dreyfus H. Telepistemology: Descartes last stand. In: Gold-berg K (Ed). The Robot in the Garden: Telerobotics and Telepistemology in the Age of the Internet. Cambridge, MA, UK: MIT Press.
Bok S. Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life. New York, USA: Vintage. 1989.
Walther JB, Burgoon JK. Relational communication in com-puter mediated interaction. Human Communication Research. 1992; 19(1): 50-88. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2958.1992.tb00295.x
Westerman D, Skalski PD. Computers and telepresence: A ghost in the machine? In: Bracken CC, Skalski PD (Eds). Immersed in Media: Telepresence in Everyday life. New York, USA: Routledge. 2009.
Careyva B, Shaak K, Mills G, et al. Implementation of tech-nology-based patient engagement strategies within practice-based research networks. J Am Board Fam Med. 2016; 29(5): 581-591. doi: 10.3122/jabfm.2016.05.160044
Walker DM, Sieck CJ, Menser T, Huerta TR, McAlearney AS. Information technology to support patient engagement: Where do we stand and where can we go? J Am Med Inform Assoc. 2017; 24(6): 1088-1094. doi: 10.1093/jamia/ocx043
Health Information Management Systems Society Foundation, National eHealth Collaborative. Patient Engagement Framework. Secondary Patient Engagement Framework. Web site: http:// www.himss.org/himss-patient-engagement-framework. Accessed February 1, 2019.
Hopkins LC, Fristad M, Goodway JD, et al. Feasibility and ac-ceptability of technology-based caregiver engagement strategies delivered in a summertime childhood obesity prevention interven-Hilty DM, et al tion: Results from an internal pilot of the Camp NERF (Nutri-tion, Education, Recreation, and Fitness) study. Pilot Feasibility Stud. 2018; 4: 153. doi: 10.1186/s40814-018-0340-2
Bergström AL, Hanson E. An integrative review of informa-tion and communication technology based support interventions for carers of home dwelling older people. Technol Disabil. 2018; 29(1-2): 1-14. doi: 10.3233/TAD-160158
Cresswell KM, Lee L, Mozaffar H, Williams R, Sheikh A, NIHR ePrescribing Programme Team. Sustained user engage-ment in health information technology: The long road from im-plementation to system optimization of computerized physician order entry and clinical decision support systems for prescribing in hospitals in England. Health Serv Res. 2017; 52(5): 1928-1957. doi: 10.1111/1475-6773.12581
Pakyurek M, Yellowlees, PM, Hilty DM. The child and adoles-cent telepsychiatry consultation: Can it be a more effective clinical process for certain patients than conventional practice? Telemed J E Health. 2010; 16(3): 289-292. doi: 10.1089/tmj.2009.0130
Sotillo SM. Discourse functions and syntactic complexity in synchronous and asynchronous communication. Language Learning & Technology. 2000; 4(1): 82-119.
Simpson TW. Telepresence and trust: A speech-act theory of mediated communication. Philosophy and Technology. 2017; 30(4): 443-459. doi: 10.1007/s1334
Geelhoed E, Parker AB, Groen M. Effects of Latency on Telepresence. HPL-2009-120; HP Laboratories. Web site: http:// www.hpl.hp.com/techreports/2009/HPL-2009-120.html. Ac-cessed February 1, 2019.
Pessoa L. How do emotion and motivation direct executive control? Trends Cogn Sci. 2009; 13(4): 160-166. doi: 10.1016/j. tics.2009.01.006
Hilty DM, Servis ME, Nesbitt TS, Hales RE. The use of tele-medicine to provide consultation-liaison service to the primary care setting. Psychiatric Annals. 1999; 29(7): 421-427. doi: 10.3928/0048- 5713-19990701-10
McLaren P, Ball CJ, Summerfield AB, Watson JP, Lipsedge M. An evaluation of the use of interactive television in an acute psy-chiatric service. Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare. 1995; 1:79-85. doi: 10.1177%2F1357633X9500100203
O’Malley C, Langston S, Anderson A, Doherty-Sneddon G, Bruce V. Comparison of face-to-face and video-mediated in-teraction. Interacting with Computers. 1996; 8(2): 177-192. doi: 10.1016/0953-5438(96)01027-2
Demiris G, Edison K, Vijaykumar S. A comparison of com-munication models of traditional and video-mediated health care delivery. Int J Med Inform. 2005; 74(10): 851-856. doi: 10.1016/j. ijmedinf.2005.03.018
Kramer AD, Min L, Fussell SR. Using Linguistic Features to Measure Presence in Computer-mediated Communication. Carne-gie Mellon University Research Showcase. Web site. http://repos-itory.cmu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1053&context=hcii. Accessed February 1, 2019.
Fussell SR, Setlock LD, Yang J, Ou J, Mauer E, Kramer ADI. Gestures over video streams to support remote collaboration on physical tasks. Human-Computer Interaction. 2004; 19(3); 273- 309. doi: 10.1207/s15327051hci1903_3
Bouchard S, Dumoulin S, Michaud M, Gougeon V. Telepres-ence experienced in videoconference varies according to emotions involved in videoconference sessions. Stud Health Technol Inform. 2011; 167: 128-132.
Rutter DR. Looking and Seeing: The Role of Visual Communication in Social Interaction. New York, USA: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 1984.
Rutter DR. Communicating by Telephone. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press. 1987.
Fussell SR, Benimoff NI. Social and cognitive processes in interpersonal communication: Implications for advanced telecom-munications technologies. Human Factors. 1995; 37: 228-250. doi: 10.1518%2F001872095779064546
Aldunate N, González-Ibáñez R. An integrated review of emoticons in computer-mediated communication. Front Psychol. 2016; 7: 2061. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02061
Daft R, Lengel R, Trevino LK. Message equivocality, media selection, and manager performance: Implications for information systems. Medical Information Systems Quarterly. 1987; 11(3): 355-366. doi: 10.2307/248682
Standaert W, Muylle S, Basu A. Assessing the effectiveness of telepresence for business meetings. 2013 46th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. 2013; 549-558.
King R, Xia W. Media appropriateness: Effects of experience on communication media choice. Decision Sciences. 1997; 28(4): 877- 910. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5915.1997.tb01335.x
Walther J, D’Addario K. The impacts of emoticons on message interpretation in computer-mediated communica-tion. Social Science Computer Review. 2001; 19(3): 324-347. doi: 10.1177%2F089443930101900307
Callan J, Maheu M, Bucky S. Crisis in the Behavioral Health Classroom: Enhancing Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes in Tele-27 Hilty DM, et al health Training. In: Maheu M, Drude K, Wright S (Eds). Field guide to evidence-based, technology careers in behavioral health: Professional opportu-nities for the 21st century. New York, USA: Springer. 2017.
Mermelstein H, Krupinski E, DeGuzman E, Rabinowitz T, Hilty DM. The application of technology to health: The evolution of telephone to telemedicine and telepsychiatry: A historical re-view and look at human factors. J Technol Behav Sci. 2017; 2: 5. doi: 10.1007/s41347-017-0010-x
Doan AP, Yung K, Cazares P, Klam WP. Internet gaming dis-order and Internet addiction disorder: Future careers in research, education, and treatment. In: Maheu MM, Drude KP, Wright SD (Eds). Career Paths in Telemental Health. New York, USA: Springer. 2017; 53-62.
Zimbardo P, Coulombe ND. Man Interrupted: Why Young Men are Struggling & What We Can Do about It. New York, USA: Conari Press. 2016.
Heeter C. Being there: The subjective experience of presence. Presence (Camb). 1992; 1(2): 262-271. doi: 10.1162/pres.1992.1.2.262
Pratt DR, Zyda M, Kelleher K. Virtual reality: In the mind of the beholder. IEEE Computer. 1995; 28(7): 17-19. doi: 10.1109/ MC.1995.10085
Baus O, Bouchard S. Moving from virtual reality exposure-based therapy to augmented reality exposure-based therapy: A review. Front Hum Neurosci. 2014; 8: 112. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00112
Ghiţă A, Gutiérrez-Maldonado J. Applications of virtual reality in individuals with alcohol misuse: A systematic review. Addict Be-hav. 2018; 81: 1-11. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.01.036
Oing T, Prescott J. Implementations of virtual reality for anxi-ety-related disorders: Systematic review. JMIR Serious Games. 2018; 6(4): e10965. doi: 10.2196/10965
Mesa-Gresa P, Gil-Gómez H, Lozano-Quilis JA, Gil-Gómez JA. Adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: An evidence-based systematic review. Sensors (Basel). 2018; 18(8). pii: E2486. doi: 10.3390/s18082486
Clus D, Larsen ME, Lemey C, Berrouiguet S. The use of virtual reality in patients with eating disorders: Systematic review. J Med Internet Res. 2018; 20(4): e157. doi: 10.2196/jmir.7898
Rizzo A, Shilling R. Clinical virtual reality tools to advance the prevention, assessment, and treatment of PTSD. Eur J Psychotrau-matol. 2017; 8(5): 1414560. doi: 10.1080/20008198.2017.1414560
Jerdan SW, Grindle M, van Woerden HC, KamelBoulos MN. (2018). Head-mounted virtual reality and mental health: Critical review of current research. JMIR Serious Games. 2018; 6(3): e14. doi: 10.2196/games.9226
Alessi SM. Fidelity in the design of instructional simulations. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction. 1988; 15(2): 40-47.
Feiner S, MacIntyre B, Seligman D. Knowledge-based aug-mented reality. Communication ACM. 1993; 36(7): 53-62. doi: 10.1145/159544.159587
Carmigniani J, Furht B, Anisetti M, Ceravolo P, Damiani E, Ivk-ovic M. Augmented reality technologies, systems and applications. Multimedia Tools Applications. 2011; 51(1): 341-377. doi: 10.1007/ s11042-010-0660-6
Barilleaux J. Experiences and observations in applying aug-mented reality to live training, in VWSim’99: The Virtual Worlds and Simulation Conference (San Francisco: Society for Comput-er Simulation International). Web site. http://www.jmbaai.com/ vwsim99/vwsim99.html. Accessed February 1, 2019.
Vincent J, Fortunati L. Electronic Emotion: The Mediation of Emo-tion via Information and Communication Technologies. Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang. 2009.
Lo SK. The nonverbal communication functions of emoticons in computer-mediated communication. Cyberpsychol Behav. 2008; 11(5): 595-597. doi: 10.1089/cpb.2007.0132
Witmer BG, Singer MJ. Measuring presence in virtual environ-ments: A presence questionnaire. Presence Teleoperators and Virtual Environments. 1998; 7(3): 225-240. doi: 10.1162/105474698565686
Buxton WAS. Telepresence: Integrating shared task and per-son spaces. Proceedings of Groupware. In: Booth KS, Fournier A (Eds). Proceedings of the Conference on Graphics Interface ‘92. San Fran-cisco, CA, USA: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. 1991.
Meehan M. Physiological reaction as an objective measure of presence in virtual environments. Chapel Hill. 2001.
Schultheis MT, Rizzo AA. The application of virtual reality technology in rehabilitation. Rehabilitation Psychology. 2001; 46(3): 296-311. doi: 10.1037/0090-5550.46.3.296
Coates G. Program from Invisible Site – A Virtual Sho, a mul-timedia performance work. Presented by George Coates Perfor-mance Works, San Francisco, California, USA. 1992.
Milgram P, Takemura H, Utsumi A, Kishino F. Augmented reality: A class of displays on the reality-virtuality continuum, Proc. SPIE 2351. Telemanipulator and Telepresence Technologies. SPIE, 2351, 282-292. 1994.
Hugues O, Fuchs P, Nannipieri O. New augmented reality taxonomy: Technologies and features of augmented environment. Original Research | Volume 5 | Number 1 | Hilty DM, et al Handbook of Augmented Reality. New York, USA: Springer. 2011. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4614-0064-6_2
Cawood S, Fiala M. Augmented reality: A practical Guide. New York, USA: Pragmatic Bookshelf. 2007.
Hollerer T, Feiner S. Mobile augmented reality. In: Karimi H, Hammad A (Eds). Telegeoinformatics: Location-Based Computing and Services. Milton Park, UK: Taylor and Francis Books Ltd. 2004.
Ludwig C, Reimann C. Augmented reality: Information at fo-cus. Cooperative Computers and Communication Lab. 2005; 4(1): 1619-7879.
Sheridan TB. (1992). Musings on telepresence and virtual presence. Presence, Teleoperations and Virtual Environments. 1992; 1(1): 120-125. doi: 10.1162/pres.1992.1.1.120
Tshuma NR. Telepresence. Astoria, NY: The Mantel Publishing. 2014.
Paulsen K. Here/There: Telepresence, Touch, and Art at the Interface. Cambridge, MA, USA: MIT Press. 2017.
Backhaus A, Agha Z, Maglione ML, et al. Videoconferencing psychotherapy: A systematic review. Psychol Serv. 2012; 9(2): 111- 131. doi: 10.1037/a0027924
Slater M, Steed A, McCarthy J, Maringelli F. The influ-ence of body movement on subjective presence in virtu-al environments. Human Factors. 1998: 40(3); 469-477. doi: 10.1518/001872098779591368
VanBaren J, Ijsselsteijn WA. Measuring presence: A guide to current measurement approaches. IST-FET OMNIPRES project, deliverable 5. Web site. http://www.presence-research.org/. Ac-cessed February 1, 2019.
Freeman J, Avons SE, Pearson DE, Ijsselsteijn WA. Effects of sensory information and prior experience on direct subjective ratings of presence. Presence Teleoperators and Virtual Environments. 1999; 8: 1-13. doi: 10.1162/105474699566017
Usoh M, Arthur K, Whitton MC, et al. Walking > walking-in-place > flying, in virtual environments. Proceedings of the 26th Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Tech-niques (SIGGRAPH). 1999; 359-364.
Dargar S, Kennedy R, Lai W, Arikatla V, De S. Towards im-mersive virtual reality (iVR): A route to surgical expertise. J Comput Surg. 2015; 2 pii: 2. doi: 10.1186/s40244-015-0015-8
Ericsson K, Krampe RT, Tesch-Romer C. The role of delib-erate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review. 1993; 100(3): 363-406. doi: 10.1037//0033-295X.100.3.363
Logan GD. Automaticity, resources, and memory: Theoretical controversies and practical implications. Hum Factors. 1988; 30(5): 583-598. doi: 10.1177/001872088803000504
Dünser A, Grasset R, Farrant H. Towards immersive and adaptive augmented reality exposure treatment. Stud Health Technol Inform. 2011; 167: 37-41. Submit your article to this journal | https://openventio.org/submit-manuscript/ 29 Hilty DM, et al
Rizzo A, Talbot T. Virtual reality standardized patients for clinical training. In: Combs CD, Sokolowski JA, Banks CM (Eds). The Digital Patient: Advancing Healthcare, Research, and Education. Ho-boken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2016.
Higgins JPT, Altman DG, Gøtzsche PC, et al. The Cochrane Collaboration’s tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. BMJ. 2011; 343. doi: 10.1136/bmj.d5928
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
All content published in Psychology and Cognitive Sciences (PCS) is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). This license allows anyone to copy, distribute, transmit, and adapt the work — including for commercial purposes — provided appropriate credit is given to the original author(s) and source.
